Development of a Design Model for Selecting Optimal Parameters for Permeation Grouting Based on Soil Permeability Coefficient and Grout Rheological Behavior

Kamal Khorramdel; Mikaeil  Yousefzadeh Fard; Mahmood  Vafaeian

Authors

Kamal Khorramdel Technical Engineering Faculty, Isf.C., Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran Author https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3742-8559
Mikaeil Yousefzadeh Fard Department of Civil Engineering, Tabriz University of Engineering, Tabriz, Iran Corresponding author https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4070-1015
Mahmood Vafaeian Department of Civil Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran Author https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2345-3494

Abstract

This study aimed to determine the optimal parameters of cement grout for permeation grouting and to develop a practical design model for selecting the water-to-cement ratio, injection pressure, and grout permeability coefficient according to soil permeability and grout rheological behavior. An experimental laboratory study was conducted using reconstituted sandy soils with different gradations and fines contents and cement grouts prepared at water-to-cement ratios of 0.6, 0.8, 1.00, 1.20, and 1.50. Grain-size distribution, soil permeability, grout rheology, stability, and permeation-grouting behavior were evaluated. Soil permeability tests were performed according to ASTM D2434-87, while rheological testing measured shear stress, shear rate, apparent viscosity, and yield stress. A specially designed laboratory grouting chamber was constructed to simulate grout injection through porous media under different pressures and to determine the grout permeability coefficient (KG). Data were analyzed using regression, curve fitting, correlation analysis, comparison with classical permeability relationships, and assessment of Darcy’s law. Cement grout exhibited Bingham non-Newtonian behavior across all tested mixtures. The fitted rheological equations showed high coefficients of determination, including R² = 0.9812, 0.9949, and 0.9881 for W/C ratios of 0.6, 0.8, and 1.00, respectively. Increasing the water-to-cement ratio reduced yield stress and plastic viscosity and improved penetrability. The hydraulic-gradient–flow-velocity relationship was linear at low pressure (i = 287.85v, R² = 0.8467) but became nonlinear at high pressure (i = 1773.9v^1.5152, R² = 0.9944), indicating deviation from Darcy behavior. KG increased with the water-to-cement ratio and was strongly governed by grout viscosity. Increasing injection pressure enhanced flow only up to a threshold, after which viscosity became the dominant controlling factor. The results demonstrate that successful permeation grouting depends on the coupled effects of soil permeability, grout rheology, water-to-cement ratio, and injection pressure; accordingly, the proposed design model provides a practical framework for selecting appropriate grouting parameters and evaluating groutability in sandy soils.

References

[1] M. R. Bhuiyan, S. R. Masum, M. T. Parvej, and S. M. Sanuwar, "An Overview of Soil Improvement Through Ground Grouting," Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, vol. 12, no. 01, pp. 51-63, 2024, doi: 10.4236/gep.2024.121004.

[2] Z. Liu et al., "Experimental Study of the Injectability of Infiltration Grouting in Surface Moraine of Pulang Copper Mine," Water, vol. 16, no. 5, p. 728, 2024, doi: 10.3390/w16050728.

[3] P. Guo, W. Zhao, L. Qu, X. L. Li, Y. Ma, and P. W. Li, "Review of Numerical Simulation of Overburden Grouting in Foundation Improvement," Geotechnics, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 3, 2026, doi: 10.3390/geotechnics6010003.

[4] B. Liu, "Discussion on the Application of Grouting in Underground Engineering," Academic Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 222-225, 2024, doi: 10.54097/v4az1x82.

[5] B. Xie et al., "Theoretical Research on Diffusion Radius of Cement-Based Materials Considering the Pore Characteristics of Porous Media," Materials, vol. 15, no. 21, p. 7763, 2022, doi: 10.3390/ma15217763.

[6] B. Xu, H. Zhang, J. Yin, and Y. Xue, "Infiltration Grouting Mechanism of Bingham Fluids in Porous Media With Different Particle Size Distributions," Applied Sciences, vol. 13, no. 21, p. 11986, 2023, doi: 10.3390/app132111986.

[7] Z. Yang et al., "Column-Hemispherical Penetration Grouting Mechanism for Newtonian Fluid Considering the Tortuosity of Porous Media," Processes, vol. 11, no. 6, p. 1737, 2023, doi: 10.3390/pr11061737.

[8] L. Zhao, Z. Xu, C. Cao, and F. Zhang, "Study on Spherical Diffusion Mechanism of Bingham Fluid Slurry Infiltration Grouting Considering Tortuous Effect of Porous Media," International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, vol. 49, no. 13, pp. 2907-2926, 2025, doi: 10.1002/nag.4013.

[9] Y. Wang, T. Qi, C. Xu, and J. Gong, "Rheological Properties and Permeation Grouting Reinforcement Effect of Cement-Bentonite Slurry," Buildings, vol. 15, no. 5, p. 744, 2025, doi: 10.3390/buildings15050744.

[10] J. Sun et al., "Experimental Study on the Time Variability of Grout Parameters for Shield Tunnel Construction Grouting," 2023, doi: 10.3233/atde230723.

[11] J. Zhang, X. Pei, Z. He, Z. Pei, and G. Zheng, "Comparison of Time-Dependent Viscosity Slurry and Cement-Clay Slurry for Anti-Seepage Grouting on Faults," Frontiers in Earth Science, vol. 10, 2023, doi: 10.3389/feart.2022.1037791.

[12] Z. Mu and F. Zhou, "Research on Displacement Diffusion Model Of Time-Varying Slurry With Rheological Parameters in Unsaturated Media," Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 3705-3719, 2023, doi: 10.15244/pjoes/163610.

[13] M. José Augusto Ferreira Sales de, B. Mércia Maria Semensato Bottura de, L. S. Franco, R. G. Pileggi, and R. Romano, "Characterization of Fresh and Hardened State Properties of Grouts for Use in Structural Masonry," Revista Ibracon De Estruturas E Materiais, vol. 17, no. 2, 2024, doi: 10.1590/s1983-41952024000200005.

[14] H. Zhou, Y. Zhang, W. Zhu, Q. Zhong, and X. Huang, "Optimisation of Synchronous Grouting Mix Ratio for Shield Tunnels," Applied Sciences, vol. 14, no. 10, p. 4098, 2024, doi: 10.3390/app14104098.

[15] S. Hu, B. Tian, K. Niu, H. Wang, and Z. Li, "Properties and Diffusion Plugging Mechanism of Modified Sodium Bentonite," Coatings, vol. 15, no. 8, p. 941, 2025, doi: 10.3390/coatings15080941.

[16] M. Valibeknejad et al., "Sodium Silicate Grouting: Mechanisms, Environmental Impacts, and Research Directions," Transport in Porous Media, vol. 153, no. 6, 2026, doi: 10.1007/s11242-026-02323-3.

[17] X. Pei, L. Huang, P. Fu, and Z. Xing, "Research on Application of High-Pressure Cyclic Grouting Technology in Soft Soil Layers," Coatings, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 194, 2026, doi: 10.3390/coatings16020194.

[18] H. Pei, "Feasibility Study on Waste Silty Clay as a Recycled Slurry Material for Slurry Shield Tunneling," 2026, doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-10722310/v1.

[19] J. Zhang et al., "Study on the Diffusion Parameters of Newtonian Fluid in High-Pressure Jet Disturbance Grouting," Buildings, vol. 14, no. 6, p. 1491, 2024, doi: 10.3390/buildings14061491.

[20] P. Qin, "Analysis of Seepage Failure Mechanism in Silty-Fine Sand and Its Prevention and Control Research," Scientific Reports, vol. 15, no. 1, 2025, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-00749-1.

[21] H. Wang, Y. Li, Z. Dun, J. Cheng, Z. Dun, and C. Wu, "Seepage Grouting Mechanism for Foundations in Goaf Sites Considering Diffusion Paths," Geofluids, vol. 2022, pp. 1-14, 2022, doi: 10.1155/2022/8394811.

[22] H. Wang, L. Dong, Q. Zhang, Z. Li, and P. Zhang, "Permeation Grouting Mechanism of Viscous Time-Varying Fluid Considering Diffusion Path," Frontiers in Earth Science, vol. 10, 2023, doi: 10.3389/feart.2022.1100196.

[23] L. Song, J. Li, R. Zhang, S. Qin, Y. Dong, and J. Wu, "Modified (Spherical and Cylindrical) Permeation Diffusion Model Considering Deep Bed Filtration Effect," Buildings, vol. 14, no. 1, p. 124, 2024, doi: 10.3390/buildings14010124.

[24] X. Zhao et al., "Study on Mechanism and Verification of Columnar Penetration Grouting of Time-Varying Newtonian Fluids," Processes, vol. 11, no. 4, p. 1151, 2023, doi: 10.3390/pr11041151.

[25] Z. Li, L. Zhang, D. Sun, Q. Zhang, and L. G. Wang, "Quantitative Design Method for Grouting in Sand Layers: Practice in Qingdao Metro Line 2," Processes, vol. 10, no. 5, p. 840, 2022, doi: 10.3390/pr10050840.

[26] J. Li et al., "Study on the Diffusion Law of Grouting Slurry at the Pile Tip of Bored Piles in Gravel Pebble Layers," Buildings, vol. 14, no. 8, p. 2555, 2024, doi: 10.3390/buildings14082555.

[27] F. Huang, Y. Shi, and G. Wang, "Research on the Infiltration Effect of Waterborne Polyurethane Cementitious Composite Slurry Penetration Grouting Under Vacuum Effect," Polymers, vol. 17, no. 23, p. 3205, 2025, doi: 10.3390/polym17233205.

[28] T. Tang, C. Long, and M. Yu, "Self‐Circulating Mud's Lubrication Application on Overlength Pipe Jacking Construction," Engineering Reports, vol. 7, no. 4, 2025, doi: 10.1002/eng2.70117.

[29] H. Ming, "Experimental Study on Impermeability Characteristics of Filter Cake Formed by Lubricating Slurry for Pipe Jacking in Saline Strata," Applied Sciences, vol. 16, no. 16, p. 8132, 2026, doi: 10.3390/app16168132.

[30] Z. Yang et al., "Optimized Fly Ash-Slag-Based Geopolymer: Achieving Effective Grout Reinforcement in Soil-Rock Mixture," Engineering Research Express, vol. 8, no. 7, p. 075108, 2026, doi: 10.1088/2631-8695/ae58eb.